Imagine: thousands of cutting-edge machines hovering in space at this moment, secretly monitoring our planet’s every move. Think of these satellites as doctors checking Earth’s various vital signs. They’re daily monitoring temperature changes and ice melt, this time in forests and ocean currents, all of it hundreds of miles above our heads. This is not science fiction; it is happening right now, every single day, and it is transforming the way we think about climate change.
Climate science once hinged on weather stations, ocean buoys and scientists trudging through polar snows with measuring tools. Although these approaches are still relevant, satellites have changed the game entirely. They are able to see things we never could, reach places too dangerous for humans and collect data 24 hours a day, seven days a week without taking a break.
Here, we will delve into ten amazing ways satellites are revolutionizing climate research. Measuring melting glaciers, tracking how the planet’s water is changing and developing “gold standards” for climate data are among the key projects that will be tackled by five new NASA Earth science missions. Whether you’re interested in climate science or just wondering how technology is helping us respond to one of humanity’s thorniest problems, you’ve come to the right place.
Global Temperature in the Here and Now
Earth is a rotating and irradiated body surrounded by vacuum, floating in empty space, subject to real-time satellite measurement over its entire surface. Ground-based weather stations cover only certain parts of the earth, but satellites can scan huge swaths within minutes and provide scientists with a comprehensive portrait of temperature patterns across the globe.
These orbiting observers are equipped with special sensors that are sensitive to infrared radiation — heat energy, basically, that all objects emit. Satellites can measure this radiation and ascertain the temperature of land surfaces or oceans, and — to some extent — of the air at various heights above Earth.
The great thing about satellite temperature data is that they are consistent and have global coverage. Researchers can compare readings from the Arctic to those from the Antarctic, and from big cities to desolate deserts — all of which have been taken in using similar methods. This consistency allows researchers to pick out temperature trends that could otherwise disappear in the noise of local, scattered ground stations.
Key Temperature Monitoring Capabilities:
Surface temperature mapping: Satellites collect very precise measurements of the land and ocean surface temperatures, often to parts per degree.
Atmospheric profiling: Soundings chart temperature changes at various heights, allowing scientists to understand how the atmosphere is warming.
Daily international imagery: Some satellites revisit the same spot twice a day to show temperature differences between day and night.
Decades of satellite data: There are now decades-long records from satellites, showing definitive warming over these periods.
Readings of these temperature-tracking satellites have validated what climate scientists have been stating: Earth is warming. Satellites can no longer disprove that average surface temperatures across the world have been warming — and apparently accelerating a warming trend — since the 1970s.
Seeing Ice Sheets and Glaciers Vanish
One of the most vivid indicators of climate change is the melting of ice sheets and glaciers, and satellites afford us a bird’s-eye view of this process in progress. From above, satellites can tell exactly how much ice is being lost from Greenland, Antarctica and mountain glaciers around the planet.
There are a few clever tricks satellites use to keep an eye on ice. Some bounce radar signals off ice sheets, to gauge their thickness and height. Others use lasers to make high-resolution 3D maps of ice surfaces. By contrasting such measurements over months and years, scientists can precisely estimate how much ice is melting.
The results are sobering. Greenland now loses about 280 billion tons of ice a year and Antarctica loses roughly 150 billion. That is enough water to fill millions of Olympic-sized swimming pools — which is water that’s flowing into the oceans and adding to sea-level rise.
Mountain glaciers are also melting fast. Satellites have recorded glaciers shrinking in the Himalayas, Alps, Rockies and Andes. These are not just some pretty landscapes — these are a critical water source for billions of people. Here’s how satellite observation is helping communities prepare for less water as the glaciers disappear.
Satellite Ice Monitoring Technologies:
| Technology | What It Measures | Vital Research Application |
|---|---|---|
| Radar Altimetry | Ice sheet height and thickness | Tracking volume changes over Greenland and Antarctica |
| Laser Scanning (LIDAR) | Surface elevation at forested areas | Mapping glacier change in mountainous regions |
| Gravity Measurements | Total mass of the ice sheet | Calculating total loss rates |
| Optical Imaging | Ice extent and movement | Monitoring glacier advance or retreat |
This ice watching is vital since it informs scientists’ estimates of sea-level rise to come. As the ice thaws, coastal cities around the world are at risk for more flooding. And we have satellite data to tell us about these changes.
You Can Track Rising Sea Levels Down to the Millimeter
On the subject of sea levels, satellites are also what we have for measuring how fast oceans are rising. This may sound like a simple thing, but in truth measuring sea level from space is an incredible technical accomplishment.
Satellite altimeters beam radar pulses toward the ocean’s surface and time how long it takes for them to bounce back. With the satellite’s exact location and the speed of radar signal, scientists can figure out how far away from the ocean surface they are working, down to a matter of centimeters.
These measurements have shown that sea levels worldwide are rising 3.3 millimeters a year on average, and at an accelerating pace. It didn’t seem like a lot, but it just kept happening over time. The world’s sea levels have risen by more than 10 centimeters (about 4 inches) since measurements were first made in 1993 using precise satellite radar.
But satellite data reveal that sea-level rise is not uniform everywhere. Some areas are seeing faster increases because of processes such as ocean currents, local land movements or differences in how the ocean is warming. And since they can be fine-tuned to local conditions, these detailed estimates are useful for coastal communities seeking to understand just how much they stand to lose or plan accordingly.
Scientists combine sea-level records with data on ice melt and ocean temperature to learn what’s spurring the rise. At the moment, melting ice and warming water (which expands as it gets warmer) are doing most of the contributing. Satellites can track both at the same time.
Detecting Deforestation and Forest Health
Forests are the lungs of the earth and suck up huge amounts of carbon dioxide spewing out oxygen. As forests are destroyed, that carbon is released into the atmosphere again, hastening climate change. Satellites are now considered critical technology to help keep watch over deforestation and forest health globally.
In a blend of optical and radar imaging, satellites can spot when trees are felled — within days in some cases. This real-time monitoring is crucial in tropical rainforests like the Amazon where illegal loggers can contaminate and exploit remote regions that are out of reach of government oversight.
But satellites don’t merely tally absent trees — they also gauge forest health. Satellites analyze variations in the wavelengths of light reflected by vegetation to tell whether forests are under stress from drought, disease or other factors. Healthy and stressed forests reflect light differently, resulting in variations that satellites can detect, such known as “signatures.”
This technology has revealed some disturbing trends. The Amazon rainforest, sometimes referred to as the “lungs of the Earth,” has been losing forest at worrisome rates. Satellites have shown how deforestation causes a feedback loop: As forests disappear, the region’s climate grows drier, leaving remaining forests more susceptible to fires and die-offs.
Forest Monitoring Applications:
Detection of illegal logging: Unauthorized logging can be discovered, and authorities can respond promptly.
Fire monitoring: Satellites spot forest fires and monitor how smoke spreads, aiding firefighters in coordinating responses.
Estimates of carbon storage: Knowing the size and health of a forest allows scientists to determine how much carbon forests are storing or emitting.
Protection of biodiversity: Monitoring forests enables to locate the most vulnerable areas that need protection.
The satellite data produced by forest-monitoring satellites is fed into global climate models, enabling scientists to estimate how long-term deforestation will affect the climate. It also supports enforcement of international agreements toward protecting forests and reducing emissions.
Tracking Greenhouse Gas Concentrations
Alarm at the size of these emissions grew as scientists spent years measuring greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane with sensors that remain rooted to the ground. These measurements are exact but sparsely sampled. Now, satellites are adding to these measurements by mapping greenhouse gas concentrations over the entire planet.
Specialized satellites sniff out greenhouse gases by monitoring how sunlight filters through the atmosphere. Various gases absorb different wavelengths of light, producing signature patterns that satellites can detect. By studying these patterns, scientists can map where the concentrations are highest and how they’re changing in time.
One of the most notable is that of NASA’s Orbiting Carbon Observatory which maps carbon dioxide concentrations with unsurpassed detail. The satellite has uncovered some surprising findings, such as the finding that tropical forests occasionally release more carbon than they take up in drought years, or that some regions emit more greenhouse gases than surveys had suggested.
Methane detection is particularly important, since it is a far more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide even though it doesn’t persist as long in the atmosphere. Satellites have detected methane leaks from oil and gas infrastructure, pipelines and sources of natural origin such as wetlands. Pinpointing these “super-emitters” can enable companies as well as governments to address emissions.
Being able to track greenhouse gases from space generates accountability. National levels of climate-related emissions are targeted for reductions by countries in agreements to abate greenhouse gas pollution, and satellite measurements may be used independent of those reported by an offending country when a signatory fails to meet its agreement. It’s hard to hide your emissions when you’ve got satellites watching over you.
Observing Ocean Temperature and Currents
Oceans soak up more than 90 percent of the surplus heat retained by greenhouse gases, so they are key players in the climate system. Satellites with advanced sensors can measure the temperatures of oceans’ surfaces and how heat is moved around in them.
Those measurements have shown that the warming in the oceans isn’t uniform. Some of them are becoming warmer more quickly than others, a trend with repercussions for marine life as well as weather and ocean currents. The Gulf Stream, for one — the primary feeder of warm water to climates in North America and Europe — appears to be weakening, with satellites measuring its effect.
Similarly, satellites track ocean currents by detecting small changes in sea surface height. A current is usually flowing where water piles up a bit. By mapping these minute changes in altitude, scientists can glimpse the complex system of ocean currents that carry heat around the globe.
To predict future climate changes, ocean temperature and currents must be understood. The dance of the oceans affects everything from the formation of hurricanes to rainfall patterns to marine life, including fish populations. When those patterns change because of warming, they set off repercussions across ecosystems and human communities.
Ocean Monitoring Parameters:
Sea surface temperature: Essential for predicting weather and understanding the distribution of heat.
Ocean currents: Help forecast climate patterns such as El Niño and La Niña.
Color of the ocean: Signs of phytoplankton populations, which influence carbon absorption.
Wave height and patterns: Crucial for energy production and shoreline effects.
Satellites have recorded troubling patterns — such as marine heatwaves, extended periods of abnormally warm ocean temperatures that can result in dead coral reefs and an upheaval in fisheries. By monitoring these events from space, researchers will be able to determine what’s causing them and how they may be expected to evolve in the future.
Quantification of Overall Variation and Air Quality in the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is always on the move, and satellites give us an overhead view of those changes. They monitor everything from air pollution to ozone levels to moisture in the atmosphere, providing scientists with critical data on how the atmosphere is reacting to climate change.
Satellite-based air quality monitoring has gained in importance with increased pollution impacting billions of people worldwide. Satellites have been able to identify pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and particulate matter, giving us maps that show which cities and regions have among the worst air. This information enables public health authorities to provide warnings, as well as shape policy designed to minimize pollution.
Satellites have also been crucial in observing the ozone layer, an atmosphere-protecting shield in the upper atmosphere that prevents harmful ultraviolet radiation from reaching Earth’s surface; with satellite tracking, scientists found and monitored the recovery of an ozone hole over Antarctica as international accords banned ozone-depleting chemicals. This success story demonstrates the power of satellite data for making environmental action happen.
Another important application is the monitoring of atmospheric water vapor. Water vapor is actually the most abundant greenhouse gas, and its concentration determines how much heat gets trapped in the atmosphere. Satellites gauge water vapor at different altitudes, which can help scientists understand feedback loops in which warming begets more evaporation, which begets more warming.
Documenting Extreme Weather Events
Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, and satellites are one of our best tools for observing these disasters as they happen. Satellites offer the data that emergency responders and scientists require to understand and respond to extreme weather — from hurricanes, to droughts, to floods.
This revolution in hurricane monitoring is driven by satellites. They monitor storms from the time they form over warm ocean waters, observing them as they gain strength and trying to predict where they will go. Satellites help measure wind speeds, storm structure and rates of rainfall, providing forecasters with the information they need to issue timely warnings that save lives.
Monitoring drought from space means keeping an eye on a few different things at once. Satellites track soil moisture, vegetation health, rainfall patterns and water storage in lakes and reservoirs. Taken together, this information can allow scientists to spot droughts early and gauge their intensity, aiding communities in preparing for shortages of water.
Satellites can peer through clouds with radar, and that ability is a boon to flood monitoring. It takes dramatic flooding, but when heavy rains do bring floods, satellites are able to map large areas that are under water, even in barely penetrable weather conditions which aid rescue teams not only identify where people may be stuck and also however the aid massively.
Extreme Weather Monitoring Capabilities:
Hurricane tracking: 24/7 coverage of life-threatening storms and weather alerts anywhere across the world.
Wildfire detection: Fires are quickly picked up by infrared sensors, even in isolated regions.
Drought characterization: A composite approach using various drought indicator combinations for early warning systems.
Flood mapping: Speeding detection of impacted areas after a disaster.
Satellite records of extreme weather are mined by climate scientists to track trends. Are hurricanes becoming more intense? Are droughts lasting longer? Some parts of the world seeing more flooding? Hard data, and not mere speculation, can now be used to provide the answer with the decades-long satellite record.
Research on Arctic and Polar Climate Changes
The Arctic is warming at more than twice the global average — a process known as Arctic amplification. Satellites are crucial to tracking these rapid changes in a region that is hard, and too dangerous, for humans to reach often.
One of the most apparent changes in the Arctic is the loss of sea ice. Arctic sea ice reaches its minimum extent each September, and satellites have observed a steep decline. The amount of sea ice has diminished at an average rate of roughly 13% each decade since satellite measurements began in the late 1970s. The ice loss has dire implications for Arctic wildlife, Indigenous communities and global climate patterns.
Satellites also watch over permafrost — permanently frozen ground that spreads across huge portions of the Arctic. As the Arctic warms, permafrost has started to thaw — and freeze-thaw cycles are a potential mechanism for amplifying these gas releases because they can release methane and carbon dioxide that have been sealed in frozen earth for millennia. Satellites pick up changes in the land that suggest when permafrost is thawing, which allows scientists to try to measure how much more greenhouse gas might be released.
Satellites tell a different story in Antarctica. Even while some areas of the Antarctic are losing ice, others gain it — at least for now. The West Antarctic Ice Sheet is of particular concern because it’s losing mass rapidly and rests behind sea level, which can make an ice sheet prone to rapid retreat. Its ice sheet is closely watched by satellites, as its full disintegration could raise sea levels some meters.
The poles may be distant, but changes there have consequences for the whole planet. Arctic ice loss alters weather patterns in North America and Europe. The melting of Antarctic ice contributes directly to rising sea levels. These connections are presented to us through satellites, that deliver data allowing us to understand these relationships and predict changes in the future.
Creating Comprehensive Climate Models
The data that satellites gather — not just temperature but ice melt, sea level, greenhouse gases, forests, oceans and the changes people are causing in the atmosphere and at Earth’s extremities, as well as natural phenomena like volcanoes and hurricanes — go into complex computer programs called models in an effort to produce forecasts. These models are critical for predicting future climate change and running scenarios.
Climate models are stupendously complex, seeking to replicate the myriad ways in which the atmosphere, oceans, ice, land surface and everything that lives on it affect one another. Having satellite data helps make these models more accurate in that they provide actual measurements against which models can be compared. If a model makes predictions about particular patterns of temperature or rates of ice melt, scientists can compare those predictions with what satellites actually see.
By comparing models to observations in this way, scientists can refine their predictions. Before they are used to make policy or projections, scientists compare them with what a satellite observes and try to figure out the reasons that the two don’t perfectly line up, then adjust models as needed. And over decades, this back and forth has made climate models ever more reliable.
Satellites also enable scientists to understand feedback loops — processes by which climate change leads to additional changes that may amplify or dampen warming. As Arctic sea ice melts, for instance, it exposes darker ocean water that absorbs more sunlight than reflective ice, causing more warming and additional ice to melt. Satellites also quantify the effects of these feedback loops, so they can be accurately represented in models.
How Satellite Data Makes Climate Models Better:
| Model Component | Satellite Contribution | Improvement Result |
|---|---|---|
| Temperature Projections | Global temperature observations | More accurate future warming projections |
| Sea Level Rise | Measurement of ice melt and sea level rise | Better predictions of coastal flooding |
| Weather Pattern | Observation in the atmosphere and ocean | Better forecasting of extreme weather events |
| Carbon Cycle | Data on forests cover, greenhouse gases | More precise estimates of carbon sources and sinks |
The climate models that are created using satellite data inform policymakers what is likely to occur under various emission scenarios. And if humanity slashes emissions drastically — as it would need to in order to stave off catastrophic warming, even assuming an aggressive and sudden package of technological breakthroughs — what will the climate be like in 2050 or 2100? How bad can it get if emissions keep rising? Crucial answers to these questions are given by satellite-informed models.
The Implications for Our Future
That’s one of the most astounding scientific feats humanity has ever accomplished; and that shift in climate science brought about by satellite technology is truly remarkable. And in only a couple of decades, we’ve gone from those occasional and incomplete climate observations to comprehensive global monitoring systems tracking Earth’s vital signs around the clock.
This abundance of data has dispelled much of the miasma that had enveloped climate science. We know with certainty that Earth is warming, ice is melting, sea levels are rising and extreme weather is increasing. We know that human activities — mostly the burning of fossil fuels — are the main source. These facts are no longer disputable by satellite evidence.
But information alone isn’t enough. The true function of satellite climate research is in what we do with it. This information equips communities to ready themselves for climate impacts; informs government policies toward reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and guides businesses prepare plans that mitigate risks of global warming. It also empowers scientists, so they can constantly improve our understanding of the climate system.
With further improvements in technology, the next generation of climate satellites will be even better. They will collect more types of data more accurately, giving earlier warnings of changes in the climate and helping us navigate the turbulent decades ahead. The eyes we have put in the sky are looking out for us, gathering the data that we need to make smart decisions about our planet’s future.
Climate change is the defining issue of our time, but we do not have to face it alone. With satellites, we have the means to understand what is happening, forecast what will happen, and act in our power to protect our world. That is the true revolution these orbiting observers have delivered to climate research — not just better data, but better hope for our collective future.
For more information about NASA’s Earth observation missions, visit NASA’s Earth Science Division.
Frequently Asked Questions
How long have satellites been tracking climate change?
Weather satellites emerged in the 1960s, but comprehensive measurements of the Earth’s entire climate system from space started becoming possible in the 1970s and 1980s. The longest uninterrupted satellite climate records now stretch over more than 40 years, and provide climate scientists with decades of data to scrutinize trends and changes.
Will satellites be able to forecast climate change?
Satellites, in and of themselves, don’t forecast the future — they monitor current states. But the data they collect is fed into computer models that scientists rely on to make predictions. The better the satellite data, the more accurately the models can predict what might happen in the future with climate.
How many climate satellites are orbiting the earth right now?
Dozens of satellites orbiting the Earth today measure various aspects of its climate, administered by agencies like NASA, NOAA and the European Space Agency and others. Various satellites focus on various measurements — keeping an eye on temperatures, or ice or greenhouse gases.
Can you trust satellite data?
Satellite measurements are very accurate, and we validate those all the time against ground-based observations. Satellite instruments are highly calibrated, and scientists cross-check data from different sources. Everyone knew the tension between satellites and ground, but if satellite measurements don’t agree with those on the ground, scientists try to find out why and correct for them.
How do satellites take the temperature of things on earth from space?
Satellites carry sensors that can detect the electromagnetic radiation — primarily infrared and microwave wavelengths — given off by Earth. Radiation of different temperatures and from different substances is emitted at distinct wavelengths, so satellites can figure out what they’re looking at through a sort of remote sensing.
What is the most significant find of satellites regarding all this climate change?
There are so many to choose from, but satellites have unmistakably shown that the ice sheets of Earth are losing mass, sea levels are rising and our planet is warming — a lot. They’ve also shown that climate change is happening more quickly in some areas (such as the Arctic) than in others, shifting the way scientists understand global warming.
Do poor countries have satellites with which they can gather climate data?
Yes, most satellite climate data is open to anyone. The data made publicly available by organizations like NASA and the European Space Agency can be used by scientists, governments, and communities across the globe regardless of their country’s wealth or tech capacity.
Are satellites the answer to stopping climate change?
Satellites won’t fix climate change themselves, but they offer the information necessary to take effective action. By tracing emissions, monitoring the effects of policies and documenting the impacts of climate change itself, satellites also help steer the decisions that could slow or even halt global warming.
